Mourning and Grief Essay -- Psychology

Sigmund Freud, born on May 8th, 1856, was the founder of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysts believed that human behavior, experience, and cognition were largely determined by irrational drives which were mostly unconscious. Freud further developed the mechanisms of repression and established a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and their respective psychoanalyst. Though psychoanalysts are not very common in our current day, other forms of psychotherapy have developed that employs diverging ideas, originating from Freud’s original thoughts and approach to studying the mind (Boeree). Freud went on to later synthesize a theory of what he believed happened during grief. According to his theory, we become emotionally attached to our loved ones by investing libido, or physical energy, in them. When these loved ones pass, we have a sense that we lost this energy, which he believes accounts for changes in our sensitivity. Under Freud’s theory, grieving consists of severing these emotional attachments by withdrawing our energetic investments (Watson). Though Freud’s view on death was fashioned centuries ago, it can still be clearly seen in various aspects/locations in modern time. Freud’s ideas which have become the backbone to the ‘six reconciliation needs for mourning’ are currently used as the basis for ritualistic tendencies of funerals, self-help books that are utilized within Hospice units in Hospitals, and self-help groups. The initial need to help the family acknowledge the reality of the death of a loved one is commonly carried out by funeral homes. Typically, death is acknowledged in two phases, the first dealing with acceptance in our mind and then within our hearts. Sigmund Freud b... ...e are supposed to do. Self-help groups attempt to fill bereaved ones lives with activities that may interest them in the hopes that these activates will either get their mind off the recent death or aid in helping the individual reinvent themselves. Works Cited Boeree, C. George. "Sigmund Freud." My Webspace Files. 2009. Web. . Smith, Melinda, and Jeanne Segal. "Supporting a Grieving Person." : Helping Others Through Grief and Loss. Jan. 2012. Web. . Watson, Donald E. "Apperception Theory of Grieving." Don Watson's Home Page. 12 Feb. 2005. Web. . Wolfelt, Alan D. "Why Is the Funeral Ritual Important?" 2007. Web.

Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde from Benzaldehyde

Vidallon, Mark Louis P. Date Performed: February 20, 2012 CHEM44. 1 2LDate Submitted: March 12, 2012 MIXED-ALDOL CONDENSATION Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde I. Introduction Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde or 3-phenyl-2-propenal is the major constituent of cinnamon oil, extracted from several species of Cinnamomum (C. verum, C. burmanii, C. cassia), under the family Lauraceae, a group of evergreen trees. Cinnamon bark (particularly C. verum) yields 0. 4-0. % oil, which contains 60-80% cinnamaldehyde, 4-5% sesquiterpenoids (? -humulene, ? -caryophyllene, limonene and others), eugenol, cinnamyl acetate, eugenol acetate, cinnamyl alcohol, methyl eugenol, benzaldehyde, benzyl benzoate, cuminaldehyde, monoterpenes (linalool, pinene, phellandrene and cymene), safrole and others (List and Horhammer; Masada; Ravindran qtd. from Khan and Abourashed, 2011). Isolation of cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil of Cinnamomum sp. ark, called â€Å"quills†, â€Å"quillings†, â€Å"feathering s† and â€Å"chips† depending on quality, was first done in 1834 by Dumas and Peligot (Attokaran, 2011). It has been proven that cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil has a very high potential in the pharmaceutical industry, aside from its well known role in the food preparation, specifically as spice, odorant and colorant. Several researches have proven the antimicrobial activity of cinnamaldehyde against Salmonella typhimurium and Bacillus subtilis (Council of Europe, 2008).Also, cinnamaldehyde has been proven to inhibit microbial growth of opportunistic human pathogenic fungi, such as Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans and Rhizopus oligosporus, and various bacteria (Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, and others) (Khan and Abourashed, 2011). Several studies have also unraveled the hypoglycemic (insulin-like) and hypolipidemic properties of cinnamaldehyde since it can cause: elevated glucose oxidation and uptake, causing decrease in blood plasma glucose levels; decreased glycosylated hemoglobin, serum total cholesterol and riglyceride levels; increased plasma insulin, hepatic glycogen and high-density lipoprotein; and restored modified plasma enzyme concentrations to almost normal level (Babu, Prabuseenivasan and Ignacimuthu, 2006). Though effective approaches in the isolation of cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil from quills, low amounts of pure cinnamaldehyde can only be obtained from effective separation processes. Feature Article Relative Rates:  Free-Radical BrominationDue to this demarcation in the discovery and investigation of other potential medicinal and non-medicinal values of cinnamaldehyde, chemists have also developed synthetic procedures to obtain high amounts of pure cinnamaldehyde, one of which is the mixed aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde. Mixed aldol condensation is a reaction of different aldehydes or ketones leading to the formation of aldols (? -hydroxyaldehydes) or ketols (? -hydroxyketones), accompanied by the removal of water to result finally to enals (? , ? -unsaturated aldehydes) or enones (? , ? -unsaturated ketones).Aldol additions are due to the reaction of enolate ions of carbonyl compounds (from the reaction of acidic ? -hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones with bases) with the electrophilic centers of other carbonyl compounds. Synthesized aldols and ketols can dehydrate spontaneously or can be dehydrated, especially when heated, to form enals an d enone, the final product(s) of aldol condensations (Moore and Langley, 2010). Possible side reactions were the Canizzarro reaction of benzaldehyde and the self-condensation of acetaldehyde. Minimization of the possibilities of the stated reactions was done by following a special scheme of procedure.Characterization tests that were done in to confirm the identity of the products are boiling point determination, reactions with nitric acid and with sodium bisulfite and derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. In the experiment conducted, the objectives of the author were as follows: 1. To synthesize cinnamaldehyde from the base-catalyzed mixed aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde; and 2. To characterize the synthesized product using its boiling point, results of simple chemical tests and derivatization reactions, along with the determination of the elting points of the hydrazones and comparison of the hydrazones using their RGB values. II. Materials and Methods A. Reagents The following are the reagents were used in the experiment: Benzaldehyde Acetaldehyde 15% sodium hydroxide solution Sodium chloride 95 % ethanol solution 40% sodium bisulfite solution 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine Nitric acid Ice B. Apparatus and Equipment The following are the apparatus and equipment were used in the experiment: 50-mL round-bottom flask 50-mL beaker 10-mL graduated cylinder 10-mL pipet Pasteur pipet Micro distilling flask Test tubes Evaporating dish Thermometer Bunsen burnerMicroreflux Watch glass Iron ring Iron clamp Iron stand Separatory funnel Wire gauze Hot plate Electronic top loading balance Fisher-Johns melting point apparatus III. Schematic Diagrams C. Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde (in round-bottom flask) 3. 06mL – cool in ice bath + 3. 00mL 15% NaOH + 0. 50mL dropwise with swirling + 3. 00mL 15% NaOH + 0. 50mL dropwise with swirling + 3. 00mL 15% NaOH + 0. 68mL dropwise with swirling – reflux for 10-15 minutes – cool to room te mperature – cool in ice bath – separate layers Organic layer , very minimal (in 10-mL graduated cylinder) Aqueous layer very minimal, unreactedH2O with Na+ and Cl- Measure amount and save for characterization discard D. Characterization 1. Boiling Point Determination Product (in distilling flask) – distill Note temperature at which liquid starts to boil 2. Reaction with Nitric Acid (Test for presence of benzene ring) 1-2 drops of test compound1 (in test tube) + 1-2 drops HNO3 Observe visible changes and temperature changes 3. Reaction with Sodium Bisulfite (Test for presence of carbonyl compounds) 4. 0mL 40% NaHSO3 + 1. 0mL ethanol – filter Residue Filtrate Save and label â€Å"alcoholic NaHSO3† 1-2 drops of test compound1 (in test tube) + 1-2 drops alcoholic NaHSO3Observe visible changes 4. Derivatization with 2, 4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine 1-2 drops of test compound1 (in test tube) + 4. 0mL ethanol + 3. 0mL – filter – recrystallize usi ng 95% ethanol Colored hydrazone crystals Determine melting point and RGB values Compared appearance, melting points and RGB values with other hydrazones 5. Combustion Test 2-4 drops of test compound1 (in evaporating dish) – flame carefully using Bunsen burner flame Observe flammability, flame color and sootiness and compared with other test substances 1 Compounds to be tested are: cinnamaldehyde (product), benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde.IV. Data and Results Table 1. Observations on the synthesis of cinnamaldehyde. Reagent/Action Taken| Observations| Benzaldehyde| Clear, colorless, dense liquid| Acetaldehyde| Clear, colorless liquid| Sodium hydroxide| Colorless liquid| Benzaldehyde + NaOH| White mixture| Mixture + dropwise addition of acetaldehyde| Yellow oil (upper layer) and off-white lower layer| Reflux| Dark brown, opaque, viscous liquid mixture| Cooling| Formation of layers| Extraction:| | Organic layer| (Upper) Dark brown, opaque viscous liquid with cinnamon scent| Aqueo us layer| (Lower) Light brown, translucent liquid|Product| Dark brown, opaque viscous liquid with cinnamon scent| Table 2. Percent yield of the synthesis of cinnamaldehyde. Compound| Amount (mL)| Benzaldehyde| 3. 06| Acetaldehyde| 1. 68| Cinnamaldehyde:| | Theoretical| 3. 78| Experimental| 3. 46| % Yield| 91. 6 %| Table 3. Boiling points of compounds used and synthesized in the experiment. Compound| Boiling point (oC)| Benzaldehyde| 179| Acetaldehyde| 65-82| Cinnamaldehyde:| | Theoretical| 250-252| Experimental| Decomposed| Table 4. Results of the characterization tests of the product and reactants. Compound| Reaction with HNO3| Reaction with NaHSO3| Observations| (+/-)| Observations| (+/-)| Benzaldehyde| Yellow-orange liquid;Heat production | + | White precipitate | + | Acetaldehyde| Clear, colorless liquid (N. R. ) | – | White precipitate | + | Cinnamaldehyde| Two layers: opaque, dark brown (upper) and translucent, chocolate brown (lower) | + | Brown precipitate | + | Table 5. Results of the derivatization with 2,4-DNP. Compound| Observations| Melting point of hydrazone (oC)| Mean RGB Values (in hexadecimal)| | | Theoretical| Experimental| | Benzaldehyde| Orange yellow solids| 255. 25| 218| E7B01A| Acetaldehyde| Crimson red solids| 221. 6| 174| C75B34| Cinnamaldehyde| Red orange solids| 267. 76| Decomposed| AF6D21| Table 6. Observations on the combustion test of the reagents and the product. Compound| Flammability| Flame color| Sootiness| Benzaldehyde| Flammable| Orange| Sooty| Acetaldehyde| Moderately flammable| Blue| Very sooty| Cinnamaldehyde| Very flammable| Orange| Extremely sooty with black residue| Sample Calculations: V benzaldehyde = mol benzaldehyde ? MW benzaldehyde ? 1/? benzaldehyde V benzaldehyde = (0. 03 mol)(106. 12 g/mol)(1. 00 mL/1. 0415 g) V benzaldehyde = 3. 06 mL V acetaldehyde = mol acetaldehyde ?MW acetaldehyde ? 1/? acetaldehyde V acetaldehyde = (0. 03 mol)(44. 05 g/mol)(1. 00 mL/0. 788 g) V acetaldehyde = 1. 68 mL Theoretical yield = mol cinnamaldehyde ? MW cinnamaldehyde ? 1/? cinnamaldehyde Theoretical yield = (0. 03 mol)(132. 16 g/mol)(1. 00 mL/1. 05 g) Theoretical yield = 3. 776 mL %Yield = (3. 46 mL/3. 776 mL) ? 100% %Yield = 91. 6% Maximum loss by solvation V cinnamaldehyde = ? cinnamaldehyde ? solubility in H2O ? V water V cinnamaldehyde = (1. 00 mL/1. 05 g)(4. 09? 10-4 g/mL)[9. 00 mL+(0. 030 mol)(18. 016 g/mol)](1. 00 mL/g) V cinnamaldehyde = (1. 00 mL/1. 05 g) (4. 09? 0-4 g/mL)(9. 54 mL) V cinnamaldehyde = 3. 72? 10-3 mL %Loss by solvation = (V cinnamaldehyde lost/ Theoretical yield) ? 100% %Loss by solvation = (3. 72? 10-3 mL/3. 776 mL) ? 100% %Loss by solvation = 0. 098% V. Discussion Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde or 3-phenyl-2-propenal is the dominant component of cinnamon oil, extracted from several species of Cinnamomum (C. verum, C. burmanii, C. cassia), under the family Lauraceae, a group of evergreen trees. Cinnamon bark (particularly C. verum) yields 0. 4-0. 8% oil, which contains 6 0-80% cinnamaldehyde (List and Horhammer; Masada; Ravindran qtd. rom Khan and Abourashed, 2011), which was first isolated in 1834 by Dumas and Peligot (Attokaran, 2011). It has been proven that cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil has a very high potency in the field of medicine, aside from its well known role in the cooking and baking, specifically as spice, odorant and colorant. Several researches have explained and proven the anti-diabetic properties of cinnamaldehyde (Babu, Prabuseenivasan and Ignacimuthu, 2006); also, studies have shown the antimicrobial activity of cinnamaldehyde against Salmonella typhimurium and Bacillus subtilis (Council of Europe, 2008).Cinnamaldehyde has been proven to inhibit microbial growth of opportunistic human pathogenic fungi and various bacteria (Khan and Abourashed, 2011). Though effective approaches in the isolation of cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil from quills, low amounts of pure cinnamaldehyde can only be obtained from effective separation proc esses. Due to this demarcation in the discovery and investigation of other potential medicinal and non-medicinal values of cinnamaldehyde, chemists have also developed synthetic procedures to obtain high amounts of pure cinnamaldehyde, one of which is the mixed aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde.The synthesis of cinnamaldehyde through mixed-aldol condensation was done by mixing, in a cooled microreflux, benzaldehyde, portions of 15% sodium hydroxide solution and acetaldehyde, added in a dropwise manner, and then refluxing the mixture for 15-20 minutes. Isolation of the synthesized cinnamaldehyde was done simply by separating the water insoluble cinnamaldehyde layer from the aqueous layer. Aldol condensation is the reaction of aldehydes and/or ketones leading to the formation of ? -hydroxyaldehydes (aldols) or ? hydroxyketones (ketols), also known as the aldol addition, accompanied by the removal of water molecule (dehydration) from these compounds result finally to enals (? , ? -unsaturated aldehydes) or enones (? , ? -unsaturated ketones) (Moore and Langley, 2010; McMurry and Simanek, 2008; Fox and Whitesell, 2004). Aldol additions are due to the reaction of enolate ions of carbonyl compounds (from the reaction of acidic ? -hydrogen atoms of aldehydes and ketones with bases) with the electrophilic centers of other carbonyl compounds.Dehydration, which can be spontaneous due to formation of a more conjugated system or promoted by heating, then leads to the generation of the ? , ? -unsaturated carbonyl compounds as the final product of the aldol condensation (McMurry and Simanek, 2008; Fox and Whitesell, 2004). Aldol condensations can be classified as simple and mixed-(or cross-) aldol condensation. The difference between the two classifications is that simple aldol condensation utilizes only one aldehyde or ketone substrate while the mixed-aldol condensation uses two different carbonyl compounds as the substrate for the reaction (Fox and White sell, 2004).The mixed-aldol condensation was type of reaction employed in the experiment; however, simple aldol condensation, also known as self-condensation was one of the expected side reactions in the conducted study. The general equation for the synthesis of cinnamaldehyde was: The mechanism of the synthesis reaction can be proposed as: 6. Formation of ethenolate ion nucleophile 7. Aldol addition: Formation of 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal 8. Dehydration: Formation of cinnamaldehyde The initial step done in the experiment was combining 3. 06 milliliter benzaldehyde with three 3. 0 milliliter portions of 15% sodium hydroxide with dropwise addition of 1. 68 milliliter acetaldehyde while swirling the mixture, which was in the microreflux, dipped in an ice bath. Benzaldehyde, followed by 3. 00-milliliter portion of 15% sodium hydroxide solution, was first put into the microreflux instead of the acetaldehyde to prevent acetaldehyde from undergoing self-condensation with the following ge neral equation: Compared to acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde has no 3 ? -hydrogen atoms, which can react with the nucleophile, hydroxide ions, to form a strong nucleophile, the ethenolate ion.Ethenolate ions can attack acetaldehyde instead of attacking benzaldehyde. Thus, benzaldehyde, which can remain as it is in sodium hydroxide, was put in first until the formation and attack of the nucleophile, which was formed right after acetaldehyde was dropped into the reaction mixture. The following is the mechanism of the self-condensation of acetaldehyde, which was minimized by the procedure carried out: Addition of 3. 00-milliliter portions of 15% sodium hydroxide solution, a dilute base, was done to compensate for the combination of benzaldehyde and sodium hydroxide, before adding acetaldehyde.Benzaldehyde reacts with strong, concentrated bases to form benzenecarboxylate and hydroxymethylbenzene; this is known as the Canizzarro reaction. Canizzarro reaction (mechanism shown below) was minimiz ed by the addition of the strong base in small portions, before adding the acetaldehyde, and using a dilute solution of it. Cooling of the mixture in ice bath was done to favor the reaction aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde, a spontaneous reaction due to the higher degree of conjugation of the product, while disfavoring the self-condensation of acetaldehyde, a heat-requiring reaction (Fox and Whitesell, 2004).Dropwise addition of the enolizable compound, acetaldehyde, was performed to minimize the drastic formation of ethenolate ions while unreacted acetaldehyde molecules still exist in the mixture. The phenomenon was prevented since it would have entailed the self-condensation of acetaldehyde, which could have caused lower yield in the experiment since the reagent would have been consumed in the unnecessary reaction just stated. The microreflux was shaken while the mixture was still being prepared to distribute the ethenolate ions formed though the mixture for the m to react with the electrophile, benzaldehyde.This procedure was also done to minimize the possibility of the self-condensation of acetaldehyde since the ethenolate ions generated were expected to have reacted with benzaldehyde since they were distributed with the aid by shaking before the next drop of acetaldehyde came in contact with mixture. Furthermore, since the reaction mixture was cold, the reaction was expected to be slow; thus, shaking can compensate for the slow movement of molecules and ions in the mixture by somehow supplying the energy needed for the slow-moving benzaldehyde molecules and ethenolate ions to collide.Refluxing was done to: (1) react the still unreacted benzaldehyde molecules and ethenolate ions; and (2) promote the dehydration of the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal to finally form the 3-phenyl-2-propenal or the cinnamaldehyde. Refluxing intimately mixes substances by increasing the contact between the reactant particles through boiling and evaporation, follow ed by the condensation in the reflux condenser (due to the removal of heat by the cold water flowing in the condenser) and restoration of the synthesized compound and the little (expected) amount of the unreacted reagents on their original vessel (Mayo, Pike and Forbes, 2001).Refluxing the mixture was very advantageous to the conducted experiment since it ensured higher yield and faster dehydration of the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal, though the stated reaction was expected to be spontaneous due to the higher degree of conjugation of the product (3-phenyl-2-propenal) compared to the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal. The synthesized cinnamaldehyde was readily separable (solubility of cinnamaldehyde in water=4. 09? 10-4gram/milliliter) with the lower aqueous layer; however, cooling of the mixture was done first to decrease the solubility of the cinnamaldehyde to achieve higher recoverable amount of the product.Liquid-liquid extraction to recover the solvated cinnamaldehyde was not done since the maximum amount of solvated cinnamaldehyde was just 0. 098% of the theoretical yield (see Sample Calculations), thus the recovery of such little amount of product would be wasteful in terms of effort and reagents. Graduated cylinder was used directly as the receiver of the organic layer separated to determine right away the amount of synthesized cinnamaldehyde. The determination of the amount of product in this kind of manner was performed to minimize the loss of products due to the adherence of the very viscous product on the sides of different containers.The amount of the synthesized cinnamaldehyde was found to be 3. 46 milliliter, 91. 6% of the theoretical yield which was computed as 3. 776 milliliter. Possible sources of error in the experiment were: the losses of minimal amount of reagents due to their adherence on the sides of the Pasteur pipets and 50-milliliter beakers; and the losses of the synthesized cinnamaldehyde caused by its adhesion on the sides of the microreflux , surface of the boiling chip and the inside surface of the separatory, caused by the high viscosity of cinnamaldehyde.The lack of further purification process on the cinnamaldehyde, which could still contain traces of benzaldehyde, acetaldehyde and other side products, could also be a factor, leading to the incorrectness of the results of the experiment. The synthesized cinnamaldehyde was expected to be constituted of the cis- and trans- diastereomers; however, it was expected that the trans-isomer was the major component of the product. The reason for the claim was that higher possibility of existence of its trans-isomer-forming transition state conformation compared to the cis-isomer-forming transition state conformation.Elimination to a trans double bond from the staggered conformation of the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal transition state, wherein the carbonyl group and the phenyl group are in the anti position to minimize the steric effects on the molecule, was still favored, thou gh the carbonyl group is relatively small, compared to the energetically less stable gauche conformation (due to steric interactions of the carbonyl group and the large phenyl group) of the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal, which can cause the cis-isomer formation (Carey and Sundberg, 2001). (a)(b) Figure 1.Balls and sticks representation of 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal in the conformations for the formation of (a) trans-cinnamaldehyde and (b) cis-cinnamaldehyde. Carbon 2 shadows carbon 3 to show the anti-conformation in (a) and the gauche conformation in (b) of the phenyl and the carbaldehyde groups. Further proof that the formation of the trans-cinnamaldehyde was favored in the reaction was the coplanar arrangement of the highly conjugated aldol condensation product. According to Fox and Whitesell (2004), extended conjugation of the benzene ring with the alkene double bond and carbon-oxygen double bond of the carbonyl group in the ? ? -unsaturated aldehyde product leads to the flat, copla nar arrangement of the product. The p orbital overlap of extensive ? system of the carbonyl group and the alkene is greatest as the ? systems arrange in a single plane, which leads to higher stability of the molecule in terms of the conjugation present. Having a flat product would cause the increased torsional strain on the molecule due to the very close distance of the carbonyl group and the benzene ring. Therefore, cis-benzaldehyde, given the stated situation, is highly unstable and is not preferentially formed over trans-benzaldehyde. (a) (b) Figure 2.Balls and sticks representation of (a) trans-cinnamaldehyde and (b) cis-cinnamaldehyde, viewed at different perspectives to show the differences in the flatness of the two molecules that contribute to their stabilities. Possible side reactions in the experiment conducted were the self-condensation of acetaldehyde and Canizzarro reaction as previously stated along with the preventive measures exercised to minimize their occurrence. S elf-condensation of acetaldehyde was expected to be greatly minimized by the procedure employed and the fact that it is energetically unfavorable, according to Fox and Whitesell (2004).Furthermore, even if the reaction took place, it would have been very minimal since it is a reversible reaction, which was competed with a more favorable reaction that is followed by an irreversible somehow spontaneous dehydration reaction. Depletion of the ethenolate ions (due to the consumption in the addition of benzaldehyde and ethenolate ions, then conversion of the intermediate to cinnamaldehyde) causes the competing self-addition of acetaldehyde to proceed backwards, forming back the acetaldehyde and ethenolate ions, which can be consumed in the aldol condensation of cinnamaldehyde and acetaldehyde.Simple distillation was done to determine the boiling point of the synthesized cinnamaldehyde; however, decomposition was observed in the middle of the procedure, causing the failure of the melting p oint determination attempt; but supported that it was possible that cinnamaldehyde. The observed decomposition can be attributed to the instability of cinnamaldehyde, usually denoted by thickening and decomposition, when exposed for a long time to air at elevated temperatures but lower than its boiling point (>70 °C) (Gholivand and Ahmadi, 2008).Decomposition of natural cinnamaldehyde, however, is not observable in baking and cooking due to the presence of eugenol impurities on cinnamon oil, which has antioxidative properties that protect cinnamaldehyde from heat-induced decomposition (â€Å"Cinnamaldehyde Content†). The chemical tests performed were reaction with nitric acid, formation of the sodium bisulfite addition complex and derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine.Reaction with nitric acid is a test for the differentiation of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes. Aromatic aldehydes undergo nitration with concentrated nitric acid under normal conditions. Positive t est results can are color changes and/or heat production. The general equation for the nitration of aromatic aldehydes is: Results of the reaction with nitric acid were shown in Table 4. Figure 3. Test results for the reaction of nitric acid with acetaldehyde (left), benzaldehyde (middle) and cinnamaldehyde (right).Positive test results were observed with benzaldehyde and with cinnamaldehyde by the production of colored mixtures, yellow and brown, respectively, accompanied by heat production as shown by the following specific mechanism: 1. Formation of nitrosonium ion 2. Electrophilic addition of the nitrosonium ion to the aromatic aldehyde (a) Cinnamaldehyde Ortho attack Para attack (b) Benzaldehyde (Meta attack) (c) Acetaldehyde Reaction with alcoholic sodium bisulfite solution is a confirmatory test for aldehydes and ketones, having the following reaction and mechanism: Mechanism:Results of the reaction of the compounds with alcoholic sodium bisulfite solution were listed in Tabl e 4. Positive results were observed with acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde, which were denoted by the formation of transparent accumulation which turned to white precipitate, white precipitate and brown precipitate, respectively. Figure 4. Test results of the reaction of alcoholic sodium bisulfite with cinnamaldehyde (left), benzaldehyde (middle) and acetaldehyde (right). Sodium bisulfite addition complexes were the observed precipitates of the following reactions:Derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine was done to support the identity of the cinnamaldehyde by the determination of the melting point of the hydrazone formed in the derivatization since the boiling point of the cinnamaldehyde was impractical to measure given that it is relatively high and the product, being impure can undergo decomposition. Derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine was performed by dissolving the test compound (cinnamaldehyde, acetaldehyde and benzaldehyde) in 4. 00 milliliter of ethanol and adding 3. 0 milliliter 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine solution. The formed precipitate was then filtered and then recrystallized using minimum amount of 95% ethanol solution. The general equation and the mechanism of the reaction can be proposed as: Mechanism: Results of the derivatization, with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, were shown in Table 5. The following are the equations for the derivatization of each aldehyde with 2,4-DNP in the experiment: Colors of the derivatives obtained were qualitatively different due to the differences in their degrees of conjugation.Decomposition of the cinnamaldehyde hydrazone was observed, which hindered the determination of the melting point of the hydrazone. Deviations from theoretical melting point values of the two other hydrazones were observed on the experimental melting points gathered. The observed discrepancies maybe ascribed to the efficiency of the Fisher-Johns melting point apparatus and/or the quality of the reagents (benza ldehyde, acetaldehyde and 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine) used.To compensate for the failure in the melting point determination of the cinnamaldehyde hydrazone, the RGB (Red, Blue, Green) values or the web color keywords used by computer monitors to generate colors (McFarland, 2009), of the three hydrazones were determined and tested for significant differences using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Figure 5. Isolated and purified hydrazones of benzaldehyde (left), acetaldehyde (middle) and cinnamaldehyde (right). Mean RGB values obtained for cinnamaldehyde, acetaldehyde and benzaldehyde were shown in Table 5.Results of the Analysis of Variance revealed significantly differences among the red values and among the green values of the three hydrazones and no significant differences among the blue values of the hydrazones. Having significantly different values on at least one of the RGB values proves that the composition of the hydrazones was significantly different, thus implying that the p robable presence of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde in the product was negligible and that cinnamaldehyde can be the compound present.Results of the combustion test were shown in Table 6. Combustion is a chemical reaction between a substance and oxygen that proceeds with the evolution with heat and light as flame (Stoker, 2009). It can be complete, where all of the substance totally undergoes combustion with carbon dioxide and water as the product (general) or incomplete, caused by several factors, which brings about carbon monoxide and elemental carbon formation (soot).Observed differences in the sootiness of acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde were due to the differences in the number of carbon atoms and the differences in the degrees of unsaturation of the molecules of each of the compounds. Incomplete combustion is generally observed in long chain hydrocarbons and other organic compounds given that oxygen is limited (Johnson, 1999; Macomber, 1996) since oxygen is consume d along with the carbon of the organic compound to produce carbon dioxide while hydrogen atoms are utilized, also along with oxygen, to produce water.Furthermore, unsaturated organic compounds (having as much carbon-carbon double bond) favors incomplete combustion since the number of carbon atoms is relatively higher than the number of hydrogen atoms; excess carbon atoms cannot be used up in the combustion process to produce carbon dioxide (when oxygen supply limited) and thus soot forms (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). It has been show in the balanced equations of the combustion each compound that cinnamaldehyde requires the highest amount of oxygen, followed by benzaldehyde and, lastly, by acetaldehyde.Given that, in the combustion test conducted, oxygen supply was almost uniform among the three, soot formation was predicted to be observed more prominently on cinnamaldehyde (product), followed by benzaldehyde and lastly by acetaldehyde due to the amount of carbon atoms and the relative number of unsaturations on each molecules. The same arrangement was also the experimental arrangement of the compounds with respect to the observed degrees of sootiness after the carried out combustion test.The structure of cinnamaldehyde was supported by the positive reaction of cinnamaldehyde with nitric acid and with alcoholic sodium bisulfite. Though it can be inferred that the detected compound can also be benzaldehyde, the cinnamaldehyde color (yellow to brown), viscosity and the cinnamon aroma of the compound (which are qualitatively different from the color, viscosity and odor of benzaldehyde), the characteristic decomposition of cinnamaldehyde below its boiling point and the results of the combustion test can be used as further evidence of the identity of the compound produced.Possible sources of error in the experiment were the quality of the reagents used, intervals of dropping acetaldehyde on the mixture, lack of further purification process, lack of more evident physic al and chemical characterization method for the product, efficiency of the melting point apparatus utilized and the storage of cinnamaldehyde product for too long prior to derivatization. I. Summary and ConclusionThe special synthesis experiment, entitled â€Å"Mixed-Aldol Condensation: Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde†, was conducted to synthesize cinnamaldehyde from the base-catalyzed mixed aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde; and characterize the synthesized product using its boiling point, results of simple chemical tests and derivatization reactions, along with the determination of the melting points of the hydrazones and comparison of the hydrazones using their RGB values.The synthesis of cinnamaldehyde through mixed-aldol condensation was done by mixing, in a cooled microreflux, benzaldehyde, portions of 15% sodium hydroxide solution and acetaldehyde, added in a dropwise manner, and then refluxing the mixture for 15-20 minutes. Isolation of the synthesized c innamaldehyde was done simply by separating the water insoluble cinnamaldehyde layer from the aqueous layer. Determination of the volume of the synthesized substance was then performed.Chemical test carried out were test for aromatic ring (reaction with nitric acid), test for aldehydes (reaction with alcoholic sodium bisulfite) and derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine while the physical characterization test done were boiling point determination using simple distillation and melting point determination of the derivatized hydrazones. RGB values of the isolated and recrystallized hydrazones were obtained and tested for significant differences using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). It was shown that positive test results were exhibited by cinnamaldehyde and benzaldehyde in their reactions with nitric acid.It was also shown that positive test results were displayed by cinnamaldehyde, benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde in their reactions with alcoholic sodium bisulfite. The boiling po int of the isolated product and the melting point of the cinnamaldehyde hydrazone were not obtained due to the decomposition of the stated compound. However, RGB values of the hydrazones were obtained. Results of the Analysis of Variance of the RGB values of the hydrazones revealed significantly differences among the red values and among the green values and no significant differences among the blue values of the hydrazones.Based on the results, it can be concluded that that synthesized product was different from the starting materials and that it was possible that the product was cinnamaldehyde due to the highly colored hydrazone formed. Though chemical tests were successfully done, boiling point determination of the product and melting point determination of its hydrazone were unsuccessfully performed due to the decomposition of both product and its hydrazone; however, chemical tests done and physical properties exhibited by the compound were considerable as enough indicant of the identity of the compound.Based on the readily perceivable physical characteristics of the compound produced and the results of the chemical tests performed and observed, it can be concluded that the synthesized compound was genuinely cinnamaldehyde. Based on the results of the experiment, it was proven that cinnamaldehyde, constituted primarily of trans-cinnamaldehyde, with a percent yield of 91. 6%, was successfully synthesized using the described procedure of the student.Furthermore, the procedure constructed and performed was proven to have minimized the possible side reactions which could have impeded the yield, physical properties and authenticity of the executed chemical tests. Possible sources of error in the experiment were the quality of the reagents used, intervals of dropping acetaldehyde on the mixture, lack of further purification process, lack of more evident physical and chemical characterization method for the product, efficiency of the melting point apparatus utili zed and the storage of cinnamaldehyde product for too long rior to derivatization. II. References ABOURASHED EA and KHAN IA. 2011. Leung’s Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients: Used in Food, Drugs and Cosmetics. Germany: J. Wiley and Sons. ATTOKARAN M. 2011. Natural Food Flavors and Colorants. Germany: J. Wiley and Sons. BABU P, PRABUSEENIVASAN S and IGNACIMUTHU S. 2006. Cinnamaldehyde: A Potential Antidiabetic Agent. Phytomedicine. 1:15-22. CAREY FA and SUNDBERG RJ. 2001. Advanced Organic Chemistry Part B: Reactions and Synthesis. 4th Ed. USA: Plenum Publishers. COUNCIL OF EUROPE. 008. Natural Sources of Flavorings. France: Council of Europe. FOX MA and WHITESELL JK. 2004. Organic Chemistry. 3rd Ed. USA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. GHOLIVAND MB and AHMADI F. 2008. Simultaneous Determination of Trans-Cinnamaldehyde and Benzaldehyde in Different Real Samples by Differential Pulse Polarography and Study of Heat Stability of Trans-Cinnamaldehyde. Analytical Letters. 41: 3324-3341. JOHNSON W. 1999. Invitation to Organic Chemistry. USA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. LISTER T and RENSHAW J. 2000.Understanding Chemistry for Advanced Level. China: Nelson Thornes. MACOMBER R. 1996. Organic Chemistry. USA: University Science Books. MAYO D, PIKE R. and FORBES, D. 2001. Microscale Organic Laboratory: With Multistep and Multiscale Syntheses. USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. MCFARLAND, DS. 2009. CSS: The Missing Manual. 2nd Ed. USA: O’Reilly Media Inc. MCMURRY J and SIMANEK E. 2008. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry. 6th Ed. Singapore: Thomson Learning. MOORE JT and LANGLEY RH. 2010. Organic Chemistry II for Dummies.USA: Wiley Publishing. STOKER S. 2009. General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. USA: Cengage Learning. â€Å"Cinnamaldehyde Content Foods Determined Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry†. Retrieved from APPENDIX A Randomly Selected RGB Values of Different Hydrazones Table 7. Sample RGB values of acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde and cinnamald ehyde hydrazones and their mean values. Sample No. Acetaldehyde| Benzaldehyde| Cinnamaldehyde| | Red| Green| Blue| Red| Green| Blue| Red| Green| Blue| 1| 202| 90| 52| 203| 168| 25| 185| 107| 22| 2| 189| 85| 50| 239| 170| 17| 173| 106| 53| 3| 195| 97| 58| 233| 185| 25| 185| 114| 22| 4| 206| 101| 54| 236| 171| 43| 174| 102| 18| 5| 199| 80| 40| 232| 176| 19| 173| 109| 37| 6| 201| 81| 57| 236| 181| 29| 174| 123| 40| 7| 201| 99| 59| 236| 179| 28| 170| 103| 24| 8| 198| 92| 42| 232| 178| 18| 164| 105| 45| Mean Values (decimal)| 199| 91| 52| 231| 176| 26| 175| 109| 33| Mean Values (hexadecimal)| C7| 5B| 34| E7| B0| 1A| AF| 6D| 21|APPENDIX B Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the RGB Values of the Hydrazones RED Source| DF| SS| MS| FC| FTAB| Treatment| 2| 12682. 75| 6341. 375| 90. 76086216| 3. 466800112| Error| 21| 1467. 25| 69. 86904762| | | Total| 23| 14150| | | | GREEN Source| DF| SS| MS| FC| FTAB| Treatment| 2| 32406. 08| 16203. 04| 328. 5193| 3. 4668| Error| 21| 1035. 75| 49. 32143| | | To tal| 23| 33441. 83| | | | BLUE Source| DF| SS| MS| FC| FTAB| Treatment| 2| 2888. 083| 1444. 042| 1. 039985| 3. 4668| Error| 21| 29158. 96| 1388. 522| | | Total| 23| 4899. 958| | | |

Discuss Hamlet’s attitude to death and the afterlife Essay

Hamlet a product of Shakespearean times has a different view on death, the afterlife and the divinity of the monarchy to any person today. Everyone in the Elizabethan and Jacobean era believed that there was an afterlife. Everyone believed in God, in witches, fairies and in ghosts. No one saw the dichotomy between their varied beliefs as we do today. Hamlet, as a result of the time in which he was raised, had a very complex attitude towards life and death. This was due to his religious beliefs and his basic morality. Although Hamlet has reasonably strong religious beliefs, he also lived life in the post- renaissance way. The Renaissance era said that there was, more to life than religion and although religion should not be discarded, other things should be considered. ‘Hamlet’ is a typical post-renaissance drama, with several plots interlacing frequently, to produce a complex composition giving meaning through contrast rather than unfolding each event in a single sequence. All the plots involve characters having to kill other characters for one reason or another. For example Claudius plots to kill Hamlet, and Hamlet plots to kill Claudius. It is through Hamlet’s turmoil about whether or not to kill Claudius that his views on religion and the supernatural appear. Although Hamlet wants to kill Claudius, he is prevented from doing so by his religious belief that God gives you life, therefore you have no right to take either your own life of that of another. This is also the reason why Hamlet cannot kill himself. When Hamlet sees Claudius trying to pray, he has a perfect opportunity to kill him but he does not, due once again to the contemporary beliefs about death and the afterlife. He believes that if he kills Claudius whilst he is praying his soul will go straight to Heaven even though he killed old Hamlet. Claudius’ prayers mean that he is in a state of perfect grace, with all his sins forgiven, so therefore, he will go to Heaven. Hamlet obviously does not want this. His father is forced to remain in purgatory and to suffer the misery of wandering the earth night after night because Claudius killed him while he was sleeping and unable to seek redemption. It is not surprising therefore, that Hamlet does not want his stepfather to have the happy ending his father never got. As John Russel Brown says: 1’Within ‘Hamlet’, Shakespeare has created a hero who is compelled instinctively to seek and exact revenge and yet lives in a world created by an all-seeing all powerful, and merciful God. ‘ When Hamlet kills Polonius, he sees himself as ‘Heavens scourge and minister’, as if his violent and instinctive reaction had been in accordance with Gods will. Such references together with various calls upon ‘God’ or ‘Heavenly powers’, remind an audience of secure moral judgements that call for repentance and mercy or for punishment. They mark the play as contemporary, not belonging to a pre-Christian Denmark, and ensure that Hamlet’s progress in revenge does not move him entirely from customary judgements even though he believes he could ‘drink hot blood’ and envisions evil spreading throughout the world. Therefore here Hamlet is showing that although he is a good Christian follower, he seeks revenge for the murder of his father. Laertes, another character to lose his father and his sister, who are both related to Hamlet in one way or another, deals with his feelings for seeking revenge in a very different way to Hamlet. Although at first Laertes believes that Claudius killed his father, his reaction to his father’s death differs greatly. Laertes does not care about morals very much: To hell, allegiance! Vows, to the blackest devil! Conscience and grace, to the profoundest pit! ‘ He is prepared to go to Hell to get revenge for his father’s death. He then continues to say. ‘I dare damnation. To this point I stand. That both the worlds give to negligence, let come what comes; only I’ll be reveng’d, Most throughly for my father. Laertes is saying that he does not care what the consequences are, he will seek revenge even if he has to damn his soul to get it. Laertes decides that he will murder Hamlet, by poisoning the dagger he will be fighting him with. This, he knows, will definitely lead to Hamlets death. Laertes makes a decision and sticks with it, unlike Hamlet who is considered insane around the time he is thinking about killing Claudius. Hamlet is even considering taking his own life; therefore Laertes would appear to be the more stable of the two. However, much of Hamlet’s procrastination lies in the fact that he intellectualizes the moral issues involved in life and death, good and evil. Both characters end up with the same fate; death. Laertes behaves like a typical hero of a revenge tragedy, rushing headlong into revenge and his own death without pausing to weigh the consequences of his actions. When old Hamlet appears, Hamlet questions whether or not to believe it is his father. Hamlet is in a very emotional state, he is thinking of suicide due to his father’s death, and now he has appeared before him, it is little wonder that he is shaken up. Hamlet’s indecisiveness as to whether the ghost is really his father, is seen when he says ‘I’ll call thee Hamlet, King Father, royal Dane’, until he hears otherwise. He is wary because it was believed at the time that ghosts brought evil and were not good however, because the ghost so resembles his father and because Hamlet mourns him, he is prepared to believe that it is an honest ghost. The ghost confirms his identity, to Hamlet by saying ‘I am thy Father’s spirit, Doom’d for a certain term to walk the night, And for the day confin’d to fast in fires, Till the foul crimes done in my days of nature Are burn’t and purg’d away’. Once again, the audience learns something about Jacobean religious views and beliefs. Old Hamlet is telling us that due his being murdered so quickly, he did not have time to repent his sins, and therefore he is stuck in purgatory the place between Heaven and Hell until God forgives them. However Hamlet and Horatio are both men with high academic achievements, and both scholars, therefore it would be unlikely they would imagine such a thing. Both of them see the ghost on the battlement as do Barnado, Francisco and also Marcellus who sees its appearance as a sign that something is rotten in the state of Denmark. Although Gertrude never sees the Ghost, its validity and existence is proven by the fact that both Hamlet and Horatio have seen it. 2 The fact that Gertrude has an inability to see the Ghost might suggest the fact that she had nothing to do with the murder of old Hamlet or that she is too insensitive to see it – an idea born out by her insensitively speedy marriage to Claudius. This also appears to be the case in MACBETH another of Shakespeare’s plays, in the banquet scene, when the guilty Macbeth sees the ghost of Banquo but no one else does. As a result of the information Hamlet receives from his father about his death, and his mother’s behavior, Hamlet feels that life in Denmark is worthless. He feels now with the death of his father, and the incestuous he feels relationship between his mother and Claudius, that his life is also meaningless and worthless thus he discusses committing suicide. ‘O, that this too too solid flesh would melt, thaw, and resolve itself into a dew’. He then describes how distraught he is that his father was only dead a month when his mother got married to Claudius, and how he must ‘hold his tongue’. In spite of this he cannot kill himself because God gave him his life, therefore he has no right to take it. ‘The Everlasting ‘has’ ‘fixed / His canon gainst self-slaughter’.

Blind Justice by Bruce Alexander essays

Blind Justice by Bruce Alexander essays Blind Justice by Bruce Alexander is a mystery about Sir John Fielding in the mid 18th century. This story takes place in London and the main characters are Sir John Fielding and Jeremy Proctor. Fielding is well known in the area along with his brother Henry Fielding for being the founders of the Bow Street Runners police force. The Bow Street Runners is the very first police force in the London area and nobody has seen anything like it. Sir John is a high-ranking member in the courts and has a great reputation for giving stern punishments for crimes he knows have been committed and being sympathetic to lesser crimes. One twister to this story is that Sir John Fielding is blind yet he has an outstanding ability to solve crimes using all of his other senses. Early in the story Sir John Folding takes custody of a young boy named Jeremy Proctor. Jeremy is on the run because his father was stoned to death for the counterfeiting of money. Jeremy is captured in London and sent to the court with Sir John and he is soon released because Sir John sees that the young man has done nothing wrong. Sir John realizes that Jeremy Proctor can benefit him in his investigations by being his eyes in crimes scenes. While Jeremy becomes an orphan to the court a major incident happens. Lord Goodhope was found dead to what was believed to be suicide by a pistol. While Jeremy and Sir John were investigating the incident Jeremy tells Sir John a interesting observation that he saw at the scene. Jeremy told Sir John that when he was observing Lord Goodhope's corpse his hands were clean. In the time it was impossible for somebody to shoot a weapon without some sort of smoke leaving a stain on his or her hand and Sir John later demands an autopsy. Sir Joh ns hunch was right and the autopsy revealed that Sir John was actually poisoned. As the team investigates Lord Goodhope's life they find some revealing facts. They find out that he was extremel...

The Genre of Epic Literature and Poetry

The Genre of Epic Literature and Poetry Epic poetry, related to heroic poetry, is a narrative art form common to many ancient and modern societies. In some traditional circles, the term epic poetry is restricted to the Greek poet Homers works The Iliad and The Odyssey and, sometimes grudgingly, the Roman poet Virgils The Aeneid. However, beginning with the Greek philosopher Aristotle who collected barbarian epic poems, other scholars have recognized that similarly structured forms of poetry occur in many other cultures. Two related forms of narrative poetry are trickster tales that report activities of very clever disrupter beings, human and god-like both; and heroic epics, in which the heroes are ruling class, kings and the like. In epic poetry, the hero is an extraordinary but also an ordinary human being and although he may be flawed, he is always brave and valorous. Characteristics of Epic Poetry The characteristics of the Greek tradition of epic poetry are long-established and summarized below. Almost all of these characteristics can be found in epic poetry from societies well outside of the Greek or Roman world. The content of an epic poem always includes the glorious deeds of heroes (Klea andron in Greek), but not just those types of things- the Iliad included cattle raids as well.   All About the Hero There is always an underlying  ethos  that says that to be a hero is to always be the best person he (or she, but mainly he) can be, pre-eminent beyond all others, primarily physical and displayed in battle. In Greek epic tales, intellect is plain common sense, there are never tactical tricks or strategic ploys, but instead, the hero succeeds because of great valor, and the brave man never retreats. Homers greatest poems are about the heroic age, about the men who fought at Thebes and Troy (a. 1275–1175 BCE), events that took place about 400 years before Homer wrote the Illiad and Odyssey. Other cultures epic poems involve a similarly distant historic/legendary past. The powers of the heroes of epic poetry are human-based: the heroes are normal human beings who are cast on a large scale, and although gods are everywhere, they only act to support or in some cases thwart the hero. The tale has a believed historicity, which is to say the narrator is assumed to be the mouthpiece of the goddesses of poetry, the Muses, with no clear line between history and fantasy. Narrator and Function The tales are told in a mannerly composition: they are often formulaic in structure, with repeated conventions and phrases. Epic poetry is performed, either the bard sings or chants the poem and he is often accompanied by others who act out the scenes. In Greek and Latin epic poetry, the meter is strictly dactylic hexameter; and the normal assumption is that epic poetry is long, taking hours or even days to perform. The narrator has both objectivity and formality, he is seen by the audience as a pure narrator, who speaks in the third person and the past tense. The poet is thus the custodian of the past. In Greek society, the poets were itinerant who traveled throughout the region performing at festivals, rites of passage like funerals or weddings, or other ceremonies. The poem has a social function, to please or entertain an audience. It is both serious and moral in tone but it doesnt preach. Examples of Epic Poetry Mesopotamia: Epic of GilgameshGreek: The Iliad, The OdysseyRoman: The AeneidIndia: Loriki, Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata, RamayanaGerman: The Ring of the Nibelung, RolandOstyak: The Song of the Golden HeroKhirghiz: SemeteyEnglish: Beowulf, Paradise LostAinu: Pon-ya-un-be, Kutune ShirkaGeorgia: The Knight in the PantherEast Africa: Bahima Praise PoemsMali: SundiataUganda: Runyankore Source:Hatto AT, editor. 1980. Traditions of Heroic and Epic Poetry. London: Modern Humanities Research Association.

Response paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Response paper - Essay Example Buddhism, in turn, refers to a â€Å"vast and complex religious and philosophical tradition† stretching over some 2500 years, including Hindu tradition (Gethin, 1998); while Christianity and Islam derived their foundations from the Bible, which is considered the cornerstone of Judaism (Steinsaltz, 2006), being based on the lives and teachings of Jesus Christ and Mohammed respectively. Each and every one of these religions is comprised of a particular set of beliefs and rituals, whose centerpiece is the concept of divinity. The latter not only represents the hub of any religious doctrine, but also accounts for the major source of either difference or similarity between one and another. In that regard, Hinduism and Buddhism on the one hand, being an amalgamation of various ancient traditions (Ahloowaila, 2009), and Judaism, Christianity and Islam on the other – having developed, and respectively build on the notion of the One pre-eternal, omnipresent, omnipotent, and infi nite God – epitomize the monotheistic-polytheistic divide. Besides the divinity concept, as developed in the monotheistic and polytheistic beliefs, this paper examines the focal tenet of Hinduism/Buddhism – reincarnation/rebirth – as against the notion of eternal life in monotheistic religions. The Concept of Brahman-Atman and It’s Expansions The relationship between Brahman (the Supreme Being) and Atman (a ‘self’, or a world for all beings, along with the human soul), which is generally described as the â€Å"frame and the substance of universe†, hence â€Å"inseparably united but not identical† (Oxtoby and Amore, 2008), is central to Hinduism. Despite some prima facie similarity to the Holy Trinity, the Brahman-Atman relationship actually implies certain imperfection. This is not only because of Brahman’s need of additional powers and classes in order to get fully developed, thus necessitating an array of deities as veh icles of those powers, but also, and perhaps more importantly, due to both components’ mutual dependence on each other – Brahman is the inner controller of Atman and Atman provides Brahman with corporeal avataras which are Gods’ physical presence (Hume, 1921; Klostermaier, 1998). On the other hand, according to Klostermaier (1998), avataras are required to make Supreme Vishnu accessible to humans (Pancaratra doctrine), along with the super-human spiritual beings, called ‘vinhas’, an inner presence, named ‘antaryamin’ – the ruler within – and ‘arcavatara’, which is Gods’ visible presence in an image made of either stone or metal. Thus, to put it in a nutshell, Hindu deities need specific attributes in order to become recognized in the material world and to make themselves available to the believers. The twin concepts of Karma and Samsara are characteristic of both Hinduism and Buddhism; while the former generally refers to a system of cause and effect, or action and reaction, which is considered a natural law, rather than an act of divine judgment, the latter is defined as a cycle of death and rebirth, or reincarnation (Oxtoby and Amore, 2008). According to the Upanishads, one would be liberated from the Samsara cycle – hence to become immortal – only if achieved transforming experiential wisdom (Oxtoby and Amore, 2008). Thus, polytheism, as represented by Hinduism and Buddhism, has laid great emphasis on human senses, perceptions, experiences and demands, rather than being

Newspaper article evaluation and Gun control news Essay

Newspaper article evaluation and Gun control news - Essay Example CNN’s Smith-Park (2013) wrote an article entitled â€Å"Pope Benedict makes first appearance since resignation news† (Smith-Park, 2013); while authors Donadio and Povoledo (2012) of The New York Times: Europe entitled their article â€Å"Successor to Benedict Will Lead a Church at a Crossroads† (Donadio & Povoledo, 2013). Different reactions and responses were noted to have been elicited from the news since it was apparently reported that the pope’s resignation came at such as surprise due to the unexpected decision and that this particular course of action has not happened since centuries ago. As such, there were arguments that stemmed from the news determining the possibility of the resignation and verifying the validity of the reported decision. Both reports apparently used an interplay of rhetorical elements to entice readers’ appeal. Initially, logos was used through presenting logical arguments that established the rationale for the resignatio n and justifying the reasons as valid. As emphasized, â€Å"citing advanced years and infirmity, Benedict became the first pope in six centuries to resign† (Donadio & Povoledo, 2013, par. 2). There were evidences of using emotional appeal (pathos) through a remarked cited to have been communicated by â€Å"Vatican Secretary of State Tarcisio Bertone (who) on Wednesday thanked Pope Benedict for his service. "All of us have understood that it is precisely the deep love that your holiness has for God and the church which pushed you to this act," he said† (Smith-Park, 2013, pars. 14 & 15).... 14 & 15). The statement is aimed at eliciting empathy and confirmation to accept the Pope’s decision and acknowledging his immense contribution to the advancement of the Catholic faith. Finally, the rhetoric appeal of ethos (credibility) were evident from the nature and popularity of the sources alone: CNN and The New York Times. Their credibility and reliability in providing unbiased and objective information has effectively been established and readers have acknowledged that information coming from these sources are worthy of respect. Gun Control News Two different news items on gun control were evaluated: one coming from the Myrtle Beach Sun News and the other from The New York Times. The article written by Wren (2013) was entitled â€Å"Statistics sometimes lost in emotional debate over gun control† published online in McClatchy for Myrtle Beach Sun News (Wren, 2013). Concurrently, the article published in The New York Times was a Times Topic news entitled â€Å"Gu ns and Gun Control† (Guns and Gun Control, 2013). Wren’s (2013) article aimed to take out emotional hype on apparently evaluating the need for more stringest policies and laws on gun control through the provision of statistics (logos). Accordingly, â€Å"despite the rhetoric from both sides over the need for stricter gun control regulations – and the fear instilled by a rash of random shootings in public places nationwide – statistics show relatively few people will fall victim to violent, firearm-related crimes committed by strangers, according to a new study by the federal Bureau of Justice Statistics† (Smith-Park, 2013, par. 1). Through the use of statistical information, the author aimed to present a more logical argument that